 |
|
A yei’i is a Navajo holy person. As early as the mid-1800’s, Navajo
weavers were placing pictorial elements into their weavings. Yei’i
figures first appeared in Navajo weavings before the turn of the
twentieth century. Considered highly controversial because of their
sacred imagery, Navajo weavers nonetheless persisted in incorporating
these religious figures into their rugs.
Four areas of influence
contributed to the development of Navajo yei and yeibichai weavings.
In the early 1900’s, Yanapah, a Navajo weaver married to trader Richard
Simpson and living near Farmington, New Mexico, started weaving large
single and double figure vertical yei rugs.
Another area of
influence in northwest New Mexico came from the Newcomb Trading Post’s
partnership with a prominent medicine man named Hastiin Klah who was
responsible for the creation of rugs depicting Navajo sandpainting
designs. Highly controversial because of their sacred depictions,
Klah’s weavings nonetheless had a tremendous influence on weavers of
that area and eventually weavers in northwest New Mexico started
weaving sacred figures and other design elements into their own Navajo
rug creations.
In
the early 1920’s, traders in the Lukachukai, Arizona and Shiprock, New
Mexico area were encouraging weavers to create multiple figure yei
weavings. These early Navajo yei weavings typically had a white or
other light-colored background and used a plethora of aniline-dyed
yarns for the creation of the yei figures.
Today, this popular
style of weaving graces many a fine collection of Navajo rugs. The
difference between a yei and yeibichai weaving depends on the depiction
of the holy Navajo beings. Yei weavings tend to have static, front
facing figures, depicted either singly or more frequently with multiple
figures in a horizontal row often surrounded on three sides by a single
rainbow yei.
Yeibichai weavings depict the actual ceremonial dance
performed in the winter months. An elaborate nine day ceremony, it
features male and female yei’i, Talking God, the water sprinkler,
fringe mouth yei’i, medicine men and patients. All or some of the
above mentioned deities and people will appear in a yeibichai weaving,
typically in a more animated form to portray the dancing of the yei
during the ceremony.
As one
might expect, the origin and transformation of the present Navaho world are
more fully described than any of the nether regions; it will be discussed below.
Two higher realms of the universe are depicted in broad lines, and conceivably
there are other wolds above those. The sky is a world just like this one; in
it Sun, Moon, and stars are visible to us as they move through the space between
the world hemispheres. Above the stratum into which we look, the heavely bodies
have their homes, living much like the people here on earth. The better-known
Thunders also live in the sky realm.
The Land-beyond-the-sky is inhabited by extra-powerful storm elements Winter,
Pink and Spotted Thunders, Big Winds, and Whirlwinds. They run a school for
novices learning the ritual of the Male Shooting, Hail, Water, and Feather chants;
the pupils are conducted thither and back by other gods.
Dawn, Dawn People (yikaih, yikaih dine'e) (P) are referred to incidentally in
relation to Sun's sky wife. They are manifestations of the Holy People and there
may be a chant in which they are leading characters.
A group of people killed at Taos were Sun's children. The two chief ones, girls
dressed in spiral strings of jewels, were called Two-dawns-arrive (Haile 1938b,
p. 163; Goddard, pp. 139-40).
Female Gods (xa'ctce' ba'a'd, yei' ba'a'd) (P) are described by Matthews as
female representations of the more familiar gods. The masks and dress of Female
Gods differ from those of their male partners. I am not sure whether they are
always the same or are modified according to the males with which they are paired.
They function only weakly in the chants with which I have dealt most (Matthews
1902, pp.16-9, PI. III, D; Curtis, p.110).
Fringed Mouth (zaxado'liai, zaxa'do'liai) (P) is a major character of the Night
Chant, whose costume and properties are conceived in great detail. It is, however,
difficult to get a clear idea of his function. The name is taken from the mask,
which has fringe around the eyes and mouth. There are two kinds of Fringed Mouths,
Land Fringed Mouths (tsentci' zaxado'ltsa') and Water Fringed Mouths (ta'tla'dii
zaxado'lia'i). The few references indicate that they are the lifting force of
lightning.
When the log containing Self Teacher was stuck at a falls in the San Juan River,
the gods labored in vain to release it until the Water Fringed Mouths roped
the log with the lightning onto their bodies, and lifted it.
When the log containing the Visionary was stuck in an eddy, the Land and Water
Fringed Mouths found out who was responsible and offerings were made to Beaver,
Otter, Fish, and Water Coyote to release it.
The Eagles of the Bead Chant found difficulty in lifting the earth boy, Scavenger.
When they tried, he spun round so that they were not able to rise. Wind took
the news to Land Fringed Mouth, who came with Talking God. The Eagles had wrapped
the boy in a dark cloud attached with lightning and rainbow strings. It was
dark inside; Talking God and Fringed Mouth put a crystal inside to furnish light
and gave him a yellow tube of reed through which to breathe. They placed Fringed
Mouth's headdress on Scavenger's head and a reed wand in his hand. The Eagles
were able to raise him, so prepared, to the sky (Matthews 1897, pp.168, 170,
215; 1902, p. 11ff., 178; Sapir-Hoijer, pp.157, 505; Curtis, p.108; Reichard
1939, p.29).
Gray God (xa'ctce' lbahi) (P) is specifically envisaged. Though he is not described,
his functions are referred to in the Night Chant. With Talking God and Female
God he performs the ritual of the circular prayersticks; he participates in
the ritual with the Night Chant talisman and he, instead of xactc'e'oyan, may
administer the medicine. He is one of the begging gods.
He conducted the Stricken Twins on a part of their journey. When they came to
the House of Gods, he held up two fox-skins; as he pulled them apart, cloud
curtains rolled back and the twins entered.
According to Sapir (probably through Father Berard), Gray God, Water Sprinkler,
and xactc'e'do'di' are three names for the same deity (Matthews 1902, pp.69,
94, 126, 130, 238; Sapir-Hoijer, p.511, 91n).
Hard-flint-people (be'c ntlizi') (P) seem to be a personification of flint and
are probably the mythological prototype of the Black Dancers of the War Ceremony.
Their noisy behavior was shocking to Monster Slayer, but it was not dangerous
because their leader, a woman, had medicine in her quiver which would prevent
the enemy from hearing the noise. An unexplained remark doubtless refers to
the fearsome flashing of flint- 'reddish light shone through her leg tendons.'
Flint People were dressed in flint and protected by lightning, sunrays, and
rainbows. They had arrows of heat and cold; they stole food from the gardens
of the enemy. Monster Slayer had to admit that their power was greater than
his (Ch. 12, Red; Haile 1938b, pp. 159-62).
Male God (xa'ctce' baka', yei' baka') (P) perhaps means 'some male god or other.'
He doubtless has different specific aspects and functions in the various ceremonies
in which he appears. So far as I know, he is not a part of any of the chants
to which the Shooting chants are most closely related.
Male God, paired with Talking God, is a part of a corn-planting rite of the
Night Chant, probably another manifestation of Talking God (Matthews 1902, pp.
15-7, 202).
Pollen Boy (ta'didi'n 'acki') (P), symbol of the male generative element, is
of prime importance in blessing and protective rites. He is paired with Cornbeetle
Girl, one of the group, otherwise composed of birds, that brings and accompanies
happiness. The names of both occur in all the formulas I have found (Newcomb-Reichard,
Fig. 10, PI. II, B, D, XXI, XXII; Wheelwright 1942, Set II, 4).
Racing Gods (ta' dza'sti'n, 'He-simply-lies,' and 'acki' nde'sgai, 'Boy-radiating-white-streaks')
(P) are vivid examples of the 'Dirty Boy' theme. They were treated as inferior
creatures to be despised and mocked. The one is described with some detail;
the other is said to be like his brother. The office of the meal sprinkler in
the Fire Dance is one of great honor. Two are chosen, carefully decorated, and
given wands and fawnskin bags containing meal. Since these couriers have to
cover a great deal of ground in order to invite people, even strangers, the
office requires speed and endurance for which only exceptional persons can qualify.
The fullest version of the mythical couriers is in the myth of the Mountain
Chant.
When those having charge of the chant sung over Reared-in-the-mountain on the
fifth day asked for volunteers to carry out the meal-scattering, no one responded,
and even though the young men were coaxed, all refused to go. At night an old
woman entered the hogan where the elders were arranging the ceremony and announced,
without preliminaries, "I will send my grandson as a meal sprinkler."
The people were so astounded that they thought the offer a great joke. The old
woman lived near by and whenever anyone visited her hogan, her grandson lay
on the ground asleep. He never went out to hunt, and the people concluded he
was lazy and worthless. His hair was unkempt, short, and matted; he was dirty,
lean, and bent. Because of their low opinion of the boy, the people did not
reply to the old woman's offer except with laughter, significant looks, or silence.
After the fourth offer, the leader told her to bring in the grandson to show
him off. The old woman waited until morning.
When in the morning the boy appeared among the group of singers, he was the
ideal Navaho youth. His hair was thick, glossy, and so long that it fell below
his knees; his legs were strong and firm; he held his head erect and walked
with poise and self-confidence. His brother, no less handsome, came in and sat
opposite him. The men in charge were so astonished that, without a word, they
began to prepare the youths for the journey.
After careful instructions the boys walked slowly away from the hogan. Those
left behind gave way once more to misgivings, saying that the young men would
never accomplish their mission. The lads went out of sight just as the sun rose.
Those left behind continued to make fun of the runners as, waiting, they played
games. About the middle of the afternoon-ordinarily the runners do not return
until night-the two couriers were seen returning, one from the north and one
from the south. The people said they must have forgotten something and were
coming back for it, meaning they had not even got started.
The boys entered, handed their bags to the chanter, and sat down. One pouch
contained some corncakes baked in ashes that were still warm, the other some
maguey jelly, proving that the couriers had reached their respective destinations,
had sprinkled the meal, and received tokens of acceptance from those invited.
Not until night did they tell the story of their trip, for they waited until
the people who 'had no sense' had gone out. This time they wore valuable jewelry
and embroidered blankets such as the gods once wore but which man no longer
sees.
Later in the evening when the guests had all arrived, a chief went among the
crowd and found the old grandmother sitting humbly apart. He spoke to her: "Your
grandsons have done a great honor to us. . . . Tell me, won't you, how they
accomplished this wonderful deed."
The old woman explained, "They are Holy People. For many years my grandson
has risen early every morning and run clear around Mt. Taylor time and again
before sunrise. That is the reason people have not seen him in the daytime;
he has been asleep. At the base of Mt. Taylor are numerous rockpiles, all made
by my grandson, who dropped a rock every time he ran around the mountain."
The well-dressed young men, after reporting to the singers, went about the camp
visiting and flirting with the wives and sweethearts of those who had mocked,
and everywhere the woman fell for their blandishments. There was nothing for
the men to do but sulk.
In the myth of the Stricken Twins, the Holy Ones from Red-rock-projects were
said to be the best runners and acted as couriers to carry the news of the success
of the boys in their attack on Awatobi. The names are not given; these may have
been Red Gods (Matthews 1887, pp. 411-5; 1902, pp. 25, 256; Reichard 1944d,
pp. 89-93; Haile 1943a, p. 31).
Red God (xa'ctce' ltci") (P) seems to be a particular manifestation of
Racing God.
Red gods were dispatched to find the hero of the Night Chant after he had been
gone unduly long.
At their home, Where-red-rock-stands-up, Red gods refused to help the Stricken
Twins: "It is not our province to cure. We are the bearers of the whip,
the Racing People. It is our duty to punish the runners who lose in the race"
(Matthews 1902, pp. 194, 223).
Round Darkness (tcaxalxe'I didjoli') (H) and Round Wind were called by First
Man to celebrate The Twins' victory over Big Monster. They sang and danced with
much spirit. Round Darkness was said to have been a dwarf (Haile 1938b, pp.113,
252, 41n).
Round Wind (n'ltc'i didjoli') (H) informed Monster Slayer about the fierceness
of Burrowing Monster (Haile 1938b, p.113).
Shooting God (xa'ctce'oltohi) (P) succeeded in persuading Changing Woman to
move to the west when other armored gods had failed.
In the Night Chant, a man wearing a female costume is called Shooting God. According
to Stephen's manuscript, Shooting God was a berdache. One lived at each of the
sacred mountains with Talking God and xactc'e'oyan (Newcomb-Reichard, pp. 34-5,
Fig. 4, PI. XVI; Matthews 1902, pp. 24-5).
Sky (ya' dilxil) (P) is paired with Earth as the origin of all things. It is
black, with the chief heavenly bodies depicted on its body, the stars and constellations
and their positions differing at various times of the year (Newcomb-Reichard,
p. 37).
Sky Pillars (yaya' nzini) (H), 'Those-who-stand-under-the-sky,' had their origin
in the difficulties of getting the sun into the sky. Changing Woman lit a turquoise
disk with a crystal (even though up to this time there had been neither light
nor heat!) and it became heat incarnate. The heavens were so close to the 'people'
that they could hardly stand upright. When the people looked up, they saw two
rainbows crossed. There was so little space between the earth and sky that the
heads and feet of the rainbows almost touched the heads of the people. As the
people were vainly trying to raise the sun, First Man and First Woman suddenly
appeared. The First Pair raised the sun somewhat by means of a sunbeam, a crystal,
and a rainbow, but their power gave out before the heat was ameliorated.
Then they made two poles of turquoise and two of white-shell, and with the four
poles the twelve men at each of the four cardinal points raised the sun still
higher. Even this was not sufficient to prevent burning, and the men were driven
to stretching the earth by blowing, a device that finally succeeded in getting
the sun into a place that allows for a satisfactory temperature. Earth's position
depends upon the support of the Sky People, assigned their duty by Changing
Woman. When The Twins visited Sun, he led them out to the edge of the world
where the sky and earth come close together and beyond which there is nothing.
Here sixteen poles-four of whiteshell, four of turquoise, four of abalone, and
four of redshell-reached from earth to sky. A deep stream flowed between the
party and the poles. When asked on which ones they would ascend, The Twins,
prompted by Wind, chose the red poles, since they stood for war.
The earth's center (xadji'na'i, ni' alni") is a holy place, indicating
the Place-of-emergence, which has various geographical locations, none actually
fitting the description. The corresponding point in the sky is the Skyhole,
the place to which Sun led The Twins when giving them their geography test of
the world. It was edged with four smooth, steep, shiny cliffs of the same precious
stones as the poles that supported the sky. Sun sat at the west side of the
hole, the boys at the east. Even keeping their places would have been impossible,
had not Wind blown up through the hole and kept the youths from slipping down
through it.
The number of Sky Pillars varies.
One time First Man ground rock and broadcast it; rocks stood up in a line. Then
the four People-who-stand-under-the-earth began to sing and, moving away from
each other, stretched out the earth.
These supporting people are pictured in a sandpainting of the Hail Chant with
the explanation that the twelve people, six males at the north, six females
at the south, hold up the earth. Their names are ni' yo'tso, 'Earth-big-whiteshell,'
and yaya' nzini, 'Those-who-stand-under-the-sky.' The same kind of pillars-of
reed or precious stones-hold up earth and sky.
The Wheelwright creation story describes the Earth Columns as twelve Big Winds
in each direction, explaining that all kinds of winds were sent to support the
sky and the stars (Stevenson, pp. 276-7; Matthews 1897, p. 113; Goddard, p.
137; Reichard 1944d, p. 103; Wheelwright 1942, pp. 66-7; 1946, p. 192).
Superior God (xactc'e' 'ayoi) (P) is mischievous and only incidentally helpful.
In one myth he seems to be identified with the Visionary of the Night Chant.
His offerings are described. He made a device to hinder the progress of the
whirling log of the Night Chant, pretended to be friends of the Holy Ones concerned
with its progress, but did not help them.
In two myths of the Night Chant, Superior God kidnaped co, the hero.
Superior God, accompanied by Talking God, met the Stricken Twins at a crater
in the vicinity of Mt. Taylor and told them that anyone trespassing on the territory
of Superior Gods would be whipped and would never again return to his own people
(Matthews 1902, pp. 162, 181, 204, 237).
The Brothers (dine na'kitsa'da) (P), 'the twelve people,' are idealized individuals
who control rare game and game lore. According to Matthews, there were eleven,
who lived with and provided well for their only sister; according to my version,
there were twelve. Both stories concern The Youngest Brother more than the others;
the life of the older ones is suggested rather than revealed. One was named
Reared-in-the-earth by the Holy Ones because they had hidden him in the earth
to spy upon his sister. This name, which was given also to a counterpart of
Monster Slayer for other reasons, suggests that The Brothers may be duplicates
of The Twins. There is reason to conclude that all are children of Sun and Changing
Woman.
In my version of the myth, The Brothers fear Coyote; in Matthews' version, they
openly flaunt him. Although they were destroyed in the contest with Coyote,
Changing Woman restored them; their remark puts them in the class of intermediaries:
"We do not visit the people, but we stand on the mountains and watch them."
The twelve snakes on each side of the center of the Grinding Snakes' painting
are said to represent the Twelve Brothers, as are twelve Medicine People on
each side of the Hole-of-emergence in an unpublished painting (Matthews 1897,
pp.92-9, 103, 149, 226; Reichard, Endurance Chant ms.; 1939, PI. XV; Newcomb-Reichard,
PI. IX; Huckel ms.).
Turquoise Boy (do'tliji' 'acki') (P) appears in a curious description by Sandoval:
In the third world, at the east side of the eastern mountain, lived Turquoise
Boy, with twelve male companions and the Mirage People. After First Man had
decreed many things about this third world, including the months and seasons,
he said to Turquoise Boy, "Step inside the sun and put the reed flute with
twelve holes under your shirt. Let the Mirage People step inside with you to
keep you invisible to Earth People." Turquoise Boy agreed and said that
whenever he passed by he should be recompensed by the death of a person. Whiteshell
Boy was put into the moon for the same purpose.
There is perhaps some connection between this happening and the gift of the
agate or turquoise 'man' Sun gave The Twins, represented by the pollen ball
in the Shooting Chant (Pollen ball, Con. B; Goddard, pp.128, 135).
Water Horse (te 'Ii") (U), depicted in sandpainting and occasionally referred
to in myth, was said to be Water Monster's pet; the name means literally 'deep-water-pet.'
He was the guardian of Water Monster's home.
When The Twins were about to visit Hanging Cloud, the assembly which was to
consider the matter of originating chants was announced by Water Monster and
Water Horse, and was held at their home (Newcomb-Reichard p. 62, PI. XXIX, XXXIII;
Matthews 1897, p.168; Reichard, Shooting Chant ms.).
Water Monster (te'xo'ltso'di') (U) is said to look much like an otter with fine
fur, but has horns like a buffalo. The young look something like buffalo calves,
but have spots of all colors, yellow hands, and a generally strange appearance.
In sandpaintings Water Monster resembles Thunder, but has an elongated body.
Monster Slayer transformed parts of the subdued Traveling Rock into Water Monster,
who promised to keep mountain springs open and rivers flowing.
Water Monster was a character of the lower worlds.
Spider Woman stole Water Monster's child in the second world and it has been
lost to this day.
Water Monster kept following the people to get back his child. The people made
Spider give it back and Water Monster returned to the world below.
Water Monster is everybody's friend.
After the separated men and women agreed to live together again, a woman and
her two daughters were left behind. The men promised to fetch them the next
morning, but the women were so eager they jumped into the water. The mother
drowned and the daughters were seized by Water Monsters. The people, aided by
White Body (Talking God) and Blue Body (Water Sprinkler), went under the waters
to the home of Water Monster. Coyote sneaked along. The monster refused to return
the girls and Coyote stole two of his children, concealing them under his robe.
He thereby caused the floods that drove people out of the fourth world.
Water Monster represented a large group of Water People who grabbed Self Teacher
as he traveled in the whirling log. He defied Water Sprinkler, who came after
the youth, but gave up to Black God when he set fire to the waters. An incident
of the War Ceremony, in which Coyote and Owl sing, represents the conquest of
Water Monster by Monster Slayer. In another version, Monster Slayer, attacked
on his way to Sun's home, overcame Water Monster with a prayer. When I first
wrote of sandpaintings l called this creature Water Ox, because I thought the
horns distinguished him from Water Horse. The name was unfortunate, for horns
do not characterize, but symbolize, power. The name means 'One-who-grabs-in-deep-water'
(Newcomb-Reichard, p.62; Matthews 1897, pp.73-7, 168-70, 212, 8n; 232, lion;
Wheelwright 1942, p.55; Stephen 1930, pp.100-i; Goddard, p.131; Haile 1938b,
pp. 127-8).
Water Sprinkler (to ninili', to neinili') (P) often accompanies Black God, but
he appears too with Talking God. Water Sprinkler, said to be the 'same' as Blue
Body of the fourth world, is the rain bringer and water-carrier of the gods.
The jar of collected waters is his symbol in story and sand-painting, though,
curiously enough, he does not carry it in the masked impersonations. He controls
rain and waters. He causes rain by sprinkling the collected waters in his jar
in the four directions. He can separate and walk through deep or underground
waters.
In the Night Chant, he is impersonated as a clown. His clothing is of inferior
quality because he 'might get wet.' He is usually out of step with the other
dancers. He gets in their way, peers about while the others concentrate on song
and steps, moves away to inspect little things among the audience, or sits on
the ground with his hands clasped around his knees and rocks his body to and
fro. Sometimes he dances with the group, concentrating so seriously that he
does not notice they have left the dance place; then discovering that he is
alone, he runs after them as fast as he can go. Sometimes he carries the skin
of a small animal which he drops and pretends not to notice. Suddenly he hunts
everywhere for it in great agitation, although it lies in plain sight. When,
after much tomfoolery, he finds it, he jumps on it as if trying to kill. At
length he lifts it like a heavy burden and carries it away on his back. He is
said to act like this because he is pleased with what is being done in the ceremony.
One of Water Sprinkler's duties, besides separating deep waters, is to extinguish
fire made by Black God; in addition, he is often sent to investigate things
in the water. He went to see what stopped the whirling log at an eddy and found
a dam, but could not find the people who had made it. When the Fringed Mouths
discovered it had been the Flat Tails, he helped to negotiate with them. When
the log stopped again, Water Sprinkler found the people who had made the dam.
Water Sprinkler taught the Visionary of the Night Chant how to prepare and preserve
the products of his garden.
Nearly all the gods officiate in some capacity at the bath rite of novices.
At one of Rainboy's baths, numerous gods participated: the yucca roots had been
pounded on one side and they were supposed to stand upright. Water Sprinkler
volunteered to hold them up. Changing Woman made suds while Talking God sang,
Water Sprinkler poured water into the basket, and Changing Woman removed the
yucca roots.
Water Sprinkler lived at Big Willow, a long distance from Talking God's home
in the canyon, but when anything happened that concerned them both, they met
for consultation in between (Matthews 1897, pp. 68, 166, 168, 170; 1902, pp.
29, 175, 178, 180, 189-92, 208; Curtis, p. 106; Reichard 1939, p.31; 1944d,
p. 79).
Water Woman (to 'asdza"n) (P) lives in the water and presides over all
small tributaries. Rain is her child (Stephen ms.).
Water's Child (to biyaji) (H) is said by Father Berard to be spring water and
by Matthews to be the splash of rain falling into a quiet pool (Haile 1938b,
p. 254, 98n; Matthews 1902, p. 311, 22n).
Whirlwind (niyol) (U) is a common phenomenon in the Navaho country. If a person
sees one coming toward him, he may rush toward it and say "s-s-su!"
(the Navaho equivalent of "Scat!") and the whirlwind will turn in
the opposite direction and subside.
Whirlwind and Flint Boy helped Youngest Brother when he was hidden in the fireplace,
watching Changing-bear-maiden and Coyote. They made tunnels for him to hide
in, gave him weapons and the monitors, Wind and Darkness (Matthews 1897, p.
101).
Whistling God, Sucking God, Squeaking God (xactc'e''idiltso'si') (U) is quite
well described by Matthews. He gets his name from the sucking noise which the
Navaho compare with that of a mouse. He has a black face and dwells in a cave
in which there is a white rainbow; he is considered 'bad.'
He joined Superior God in hindering the progress of the whirling log.
Whistling Gods released the cave trap which had caught the Stricken Twins. These
gods moved very fast and carried a four-stranded yucca whip. One of them told
the Stricken Twins that every one who came to their house, even the gods, must
be whipped; naturally they had few visitors.
Offerings are described for Whistling God.
There are some hints that Whistling God may be related to Wind (Sapir-Hoijer,
pp. 177, 185, 224-7, 511, 93n; Matthews 1902, pp.181, 215, 236).
xactce'o'yan, xactc'e'oyan (P) is an untranslatable name of the weaker companion
of the pair dominated by Talking God. Matthews translates it 'House God,' and
strangely, his translation has been followed by all his successors except Goddard.
Sandoval from Shiprock, who worked with Goddard, thought the misconception very
amusing. Tla'h, who was from Newcomb, thought the translation ridiculous, but
was more annoyed than amused by it. The informants at Ganado agreed in not attaching
a meaning to the name.
xactc'e'oyan is minutely described by Matthews. What has been said of Talking
God to the effect that symbols are emphasized, not exclusive, holds for his
companion as well. xactc'e'oyan is represented as having charge of farm songs
and is the god of evening or sunset.
Two origins are given for him: Yellow Body stood for xactc'e'oyan in the third
world; he is said to have been created by Whiteshell Woman from a yellow corn
ear.
As the gods flocked around the Visionary marveling at his turkey, he explained
every symbol of its body. When he finished, the youth said to xactc'e'oyan,
"That is the way my pet turkey is dressed. Tell me now, how is your pet
turkey dressed?" The god answered, "I have no pet turkey. Things that
belong to the water are mine.
Water Boy is said to be the son of xactc'e'oyan. The young man pitted against
the sometime successful Gambler, the one who finally overcame him, was the son
of xactc'e'oyan, whose name is not given; he was a young married man who had
no children.
The god xactc'e'oyan is mentioned as often as Talking God, usually as his companion.
xactc'e'oyan helped the Visionary by negotiating with the Water People, who
impeded the whirling log; he blew upon the rainbow on which the Visionary moved
his crops to start it. xactc'e'oyan was severe to the Stricken Twins until they
had obtained the treasures of Awatobi; later, he was prominent in the ceremony
for their treatment.
xactc'e'oyan is concerned with fees: Sun told his son by Rough Woman, groomed
to beat Gambler, to get the stakes for betting from xactc'e'oyan. After everything
had been prepared and the young man was ready to start off, the god asked about
his fee. When it was promised, xactc'e'oyan advised the party to wait yet another
day in order to make the mind of Gambler 'forked,' that is, to keep him from
concentrating on his games; an additional fee was paid for this information.
When Monster Slayer caught his first eagle, he gave twelve choice tail feathers
to Talking God and twelve tail feathers of the second eagle to xactc'e'oyan;
these may now be seen in their headdresses and as rays of the rising and setting
sun.
According to Stephen, xactc'e'oyan lives with Talking God inside La Plata Mountain;
both guard the game animals.
When the gods took co, hero of the Night Chant, on a round of visits to the
gods, they came to the home of one of the xactc'e'oyan (one of these gods was
in the party but the house was not his). It was made of blue sky. On top of
it grew four spruce trees: at the east, a white one with a pigeon on its tip;
at the south a blue spruce with a bluebird; at the west, a yellow spruce with
a pygmy owl; and at the north, a black spruce with a yellow-shouldered blackbird.
During their wanderings the Stricken Twins, with the conivance of Talking God,
came into an assembly led by xactc'e'oyan at Broad Rock. The house was among
the rocks; on its front there was a rainbow of two colors; as soon as the boys
touched the rock,it flew open and they entered an empty chamber. On the opposite
wall they saw an arched door of three rainbow colors, which also flew open.
They continued through three rooms, each of which had one more color in the
arch of the secret door, until they entered the fourth door, over which was
a rainbow of five colors. The door itself was covered with beautiful rock crystals
glittering like stars. When they entered the fourth room, they were confronted
with so many Holy People that the lame boy was abashed and hung his head (Matthews
1897, pp. 68, 82-3, 225; 1902, pp. 10, 16, 179, 192, 208, 218, 263, 316, Pl.
III, B, VI; Stevenson, p. 227; Goddard, pp. 142-3; Newcomb 1940b, pp. 63, 73;
Stephen ms.).
xactc'e'do'di (P) is said to be another name for Water Sprinkler and Gray God.
When the Stricken Twins approached the gods' home, their dog barked. xactc'e'oyan,
sent by Talking God to investigate, led the twins in.
xactc'e'do'di had a blue face and a quiver of puma skin, and accompanied Monster
Slayer and Child-of-the-water in a rite.
When the Stricken Twins returned with the treasures of Awatobi, xactc'e'do'di'
accompanied xactc'e'oyan as he went to meet them.
xactc'e'do'di helped Water Sprinkler to get sand for a sandpainting.
Possibly xactc'e'do'di is identified with Crane (Sapir-Hoijer, p. 511, 91n;
Matthews 1902, pp. 230, 232, 256, 263; cp. Haile 1943a, p. 22).
xa'dactcici' (P), associated with yucca, appears in some forms of the Night
Chant. His home is called Narrow-yucca-spreads; he carries a yucca plant on
his back and a whip of yucca fiber in his hand. Whipping with yucca, believed
to relieve lumbago or headache, is his only power.
xa'dactcici' conducted the Stricken Twins into one of the homes of the gods.
One of the mountain sheep that turned into gods became xa'dactcici' (Matthews
1897, p. 251, 266n; 1902, pp. 14-5, 233; Stevenson, p. 283).
Four Sacred Plants are assigned to the cardinal points, and amongst the Navajos Maize is the plant of the North, Beans of the east. This means that both are male and as both are grown for edible seeds, recognition of the physiological function of the male was probably involved in the selection. This is entirely possible since the convention could have been established only very late, after settlement in America. Squash, for the Navajos, is the plant of the South, which is fitting since its fruit is called "eight-sided" and the eight-sided earth (an alternative to the square earth, taking account of the diagonal directions) is female. Also the stalk is angled in sections, a feature deliberately exaggerated when the plant is depicted in sand paintings, and crooked things are female. Tobacco, which the Navajos put on the west, is female because it is used to make smoke which is blown out with the breath, and that is female. Below the Plants are white roots, the significance being that these plants still have their roots in the lower world.
First Man
called the people together. He brought forth the white corn which had been formed
with him. First Woman brought the yellow corn. They laid the perfect ears side
by side; then they asked one person from among the many to come and help them.
The Turkey stepped forward. They asked him where he had come from, and he said
that he had come from the Gray Mountain. He danced back and forth four times,
then he shook his feather coat and there dropped from his clothing four kernels
of corn, one gray, one blue, one black, and one red. Another person was asked
to help in the plan of the planting. The big snake came forward. He likewise
brought forth four seeds, the pumpkin, the watermelon, the cantaloupe, and the
muskmelon. His plants all crawl on the ground. Pg. 6
7- Informant's note: Rarely is much white or yellow corn planted at one time
because it is the most sacred. Pg. 103
Corn Boy, Corn Girl, Cornmeal Carrier: Corn is the most sacred of all Native American plants. Originally, it came from native grasses of Mexico and Guatemala and was brought to Turtle Island by Mexican Indians and Carib people. Standing straight and tall, corn resembles human beings standing in rows. White corn is thought, by the Navajo, to be male, yellow corn is female. Round-headed corn symbols are men, square-headed are female. Food made from corn especially cornmeal is symbolic of the goodness of Mother Earth and Father Sky. Corn Pollen is used in many blessing ceremonies, as is cornmeal. Strings of hardened corn kernels are made into necklaces. Corn, as Jay de Groat has put it, is "Mother Earth's workmanship." Pg. 191
Harry Walters explained that corn is a metaphor for human life because both of through the same stages of life. Both corn and humans reach a stage of fruition when they blossom: the corn bursts forth with pollen while humans also achieve a peak of development associated with sa'a naghai bik'e hozho. Harry Walters (personal communication, 1990) described this state of being: "Every time he talks, thinks, or acts, he does so in radiance, in a state of wisdom and perfect harmony." Just as the corn disseminates its pollen for the continuation of corn plants, so too humans have been entrusted with sacred responsibility to disseminate their knowledge for the benefit and continuation of future generations. Because both corn and humans need nurturance from the four directions (four cardinal light phenomena) in order to reach old age, both possess knowledge from the four directions; it is this knowledge that they take into their beings and then have a responsibility to return to those that come after them.
Corn, the symbol of food, fertility, and life itself, is of major importance. "Corn is more than human; it is divine; it (is) connected with the highest ethical ideals." Pgs. 375-76
The old
sunwise and other ceremonial ways of planting have almost disappeared, but most
Navahos still use the Indian method of planting corn in hills rather than in
rows. Planting dates are determined by various means at Navaho Mountain,
for instance, by the position of the Pleiades and simple folk rites continue
to be a basic part of agriculture. Pg. 30
Many ritual practices are an everyday adjunct of agriculture. Seeds are mixed
with ground "mirage stone" and treated in a variety of other ways.
To prevent early frosts, stones from the sweathouses are planted in the fields
or at the base of fruit trees. If the crop is being damaged by wind, the wind
is called by its secret name and asked to leave the corn alone. Cutworms are
placed on fragments of pottery, sprinkled with pollen, and given other "magical"
treatment. When the harvest is stored, a stalk of corn having two ears is placed
in the bottom of the storage pit to ensure a healthy crop for the next year.
At intervals while the corn is growing the farmer should go to his field, walk
around and through it in a special way, singing the appropriate song. Not every
Navaho farmer follows every one of these of the hundreds of other negative or
positive agricultural folk rites which could be mentioned, but the writers have
not known any Navaho families who do not observe some simple rituals. Pg. 143-144
From the Puebloans they gained their first knowledge of corn and soon learned to grind it and use the meal for food and for ceremonial purposes. In order to save the best corn for themselves the owners created a taboo that the Navajos must not touch any ears except the two small ones that grew at the very top of the cornstalk, and these were likely to be small nubbins. The other, larger ears were said to belong to the gods. Pg. XXII
A Navajo from Coalmine stated that "cased" squirrelskins were also sometimes used as containers for ceremonial materials. Bags of this type were made by both men and women and were used for storing sacred materials such as the seed corn to be planted ritually first in the center of the field.
Parched corn has been mentioned as an effective absorptive device. Cake [sweetened cornbread baked in a pit oven] is a treat of the Girl's Ceremony and the Flint Chant; in both it is an offering to Sun.
Farm songs belong to the entire tribe and are sung for the planting and maturation events rather than for a particular ceremony. The initial song refers to seed planting; it describes the place for planting, the seed, and offerings made to the seed [or perhaps to the earth]. The verbs are first in the form "I wish it to be...." and change later to 'It is becoming....' The second song repeats the sentiments of the first, but in the form 'It has become so.'
The songs of the second interval refer to the sprouting of the corn in terms corresponding with those of the first interval. Time is allowed for growth, then song indicates the appearance of tiny blades above the ground, another the fresh yellow-green appearance of the field; another celebrates the normal growth of the corn; a song states that the 'corn loves me' and is therefore doing well under my hand; another, that the leaves are large enough to touch one another when the wind blows; still another, that some plants are large and cast uniform shadows over the field, that red silk has appeared, that pollen has formed. Subsequent songs refer to the harvested ears, emphasizing the crackling sound made when the fully developed stalks are pulled. There are songs to describe the plucking of the ears and the piling of bundles gathered and dumped in the center of the field. The next song describes the extension of the piles of corn -'It increases by spreading'; another summarizes by describing the harvest as a whole. The pattern does not change for the husking, which is again described by sound--'now from my hands it gives forth a sound' - or for the drying, which completes the harvest.
Several
versions ascribe human beings to a supernatural transformation of corn which
existed primordially with First Man. Sun was said to be corn's father, Lightning
its mother. According to one version, the results of the transformation were
persons called First Man and First Woman, who are also referred to as `our ancestors.'
From this account we may conclude that First man and first woman not only had
corn in the early worlds but also were corn and came to symbolize transformation
into human form. One origin is attributed to the transformation of turquoise
and whiteshell images by deific ceremonial. Since, however, the jewels were
laid beside corn ears, the significance is in the association between corn and
precious stones rather than in the gems themselves. According to Navajo interpretation,
the two would be the `the same'.
However, in contrast to the numerous etiologies of corn, accounts of the origin
of particular plants are few. In some myths corn is considered primeval, for
First Man had some in the first world. Other myths account for it as the gift
of a god or a neighboring people. Whatever its origin, its value is constantly
emphasized. According to one myth, Talking God gave corn to Whiteshell Woman
and her sister, Turquoise Woman, saying, "There is no better thing than
this in the world, for it is the gift of life." Later, when he visited
them again and they told him they still had it, he said, "That is good,
for corn is your symbol of fertility and life."
The hunting animals carried packs of corn on their backs, for they had charge
of the corn-growing rite of the Fire Dance.
The complementation of corn by game is brought out by Talking God, who, in the
myth of the Night Chant, instructs the her: "Never give corn to eat of
its own substance. If you give it, corn will thereafter ever eat corn until
all the land is destroyed. Then men will starve and have to eat one another,
and thus destroy their own race. Give corn flesh to eat. For like reasons corn
must be fed to the masks in the ceremonies. Should meat be fed to them, men
would, thereafter, eat men." The masks of sacred buckskin represent game
animals. According to tradition punishment was inevitable if the injunction
was disobeyed.
Once, many years ago, when the ceremony of the corn was taking place and a young
virgin was grinding meat to feed the corn, a wicked woman went out from the
lodge and fed corn to the corn hanging on the poles of the drying frame. That
year the people starved and men ate the flesh of other men.
Corn (na'da'), in myth and ritual at least, is reaffirmed as belonging to the
Navaho from time immemorial and there is probably no rite or ceremony in which
corn does not function in some form or other. The feeling about corn is expressed:
"Corn is more than human, it is divine; it was connected with the highest
ethical ideals."
When Talking God gave corn to the lonely sisters of the Eagle Chant legend,
he directed that they should never give it away. "Because," he explained,
"there is no better thing in the world, for it is the gift of life."
Later, when through ritualistic instruction their lot had improved, he said
again, "Corn is your symbol of fertility and life."
Of the many representative references that might be given, a few follow: Hill
1938, pp. 20-95; Newcomb 1940b, pp.51, 71, 73, 76; Matthews 1897, pp. 137, 140,
183; 1902, pp.27, 29,106, 187-93; Haile 1938b, pp. 87, 191, 231; 1943a, pp.
162, 313, 174n; Reichard 1939, pp. 27, 30, 34, PI. IV-VII; 1944d, pp. 19, 81,
91, 113, 135; Shooting Chant ms.; Sapir-Hoijer, p. 31; Goddard, p. 174; Wheelwright
1942, p. 122, Set I, 1-4; II, 2; III, 1-4.
Corn meal (na'da'ka'n) is one of the commonest forms of corn in ceremony. It
is coarsely ground, white for a man, yellow for a woman, mixed if there is a
patient of each sex. Sometimes it must be ground by a virgin or at some particular
place or time in the ritual cycle. It is invariably used for the hogan blessing,
for sandpainting sprinkling, and as a drier after the bath in all the rites
I have seen, Evil as well as Holy. Often it serves as a substitute for pollen,
since corn meal is plentiful and pollen is scarce. It usually denotes the same
thing, life and success along the road, exemplified by footprints laid in corn
meal.
With Big Fly's help, people overcome by Spider Man heaped corn pollen and white
corn meal on Spider Man until he could no longer move. Big Fly took some of
these substances for future rituals.
The corn-meal drier of the Night Chant bath was said to stand for the patient's
body and blood (Haile 1938b, pp. 180-3; Sapir-Hoijer, p. 251).
Corn smut (da 'a' tca'n, 'corn excrement') was the paint for the black hail
spots of the Shooting Chant figure painting.
Hill describes cooked corn smut as a food. The eater applied some to his feet
with the formula, "We are going to have much rain and large crops, but
hail will not ruin the crops."
Corn smut was a part of the Feather Chant blackening.
Cornsmut Man was one of the Eagle Chant characters; he blackened himself with
corn smut before starting to catch eagles (Hill 1938, p. 46; Newcomb 1940b,
pp. 63, 65).
Weaving has been carried to a high degree of perfection by the Navaho. The art as it exists among them today is not an invention of their own, as nothing similar is found among any other tribe of the Athapascan stock. It is pretty safe to say that the Navaho learned the art of weaving from the Pueblos. Their own legends, however, account for it in their own way. The hanelnaeheke hani', or moving upward chant legend, records that the art of weaving was taught by the Spider Man and Spider Woman in the following manner. "The Spider Man drew some cotton (ndaka') from his side and instructed the Navaho to make a loom. The cotton-warp was made of spider-web (nashjei bitlol). The upper cross-pole was called yabitlol (sky or upper cord), the lower cross-pole ni'bitlol (earth or lower cord). The warp-sticks were made of shabitlol (sun rays), the upper strings, fastening the warp to the pole, of atsinltlish (lightning), the lower strings of shabitlajilchi (sun halo), the heald was a tsaghadindini isenil (rock crystal heald), the cord-heald stick was made of atsolaghal (sheet lightning), and was secured to the warp strands by means of nltsatlol billdestlo' (rain ray cords)." "The batten-stick was also made of shabitlajilchi (sun halo), while the beidzoi (comb) was of yolgai (white shell). Four spindles or distaffs were added to this, the disks of which were of cannel-coal, turquoise, abalone and white bead, respectively, and the spindle-sticks of atsinltlish (zigzag lightning), hajilgish (flash lightning), atsolaghal (sheet lightning), and nltsatlol (rain ray), respectively." "The dark, blue, yellow and white winds quickened the spindles (beedizi) according to their color, and enabled them to travel around the world."
Presumably, this legend accounts for the now vanishing tradition that weaving should be done with proper moderation. Overdone weaving (akeitlo) is ameliorated by a sacrifice offered to the spindle (beedizi). Its prayerstick (bik'et'an) consists of yucca, precious stones, bird and turkey feathers, tassels of grass (tlo'zol) and pollen, and forms part of the blessing rite (hozhoji). The hach'eyatqei, or ch'aeyatqei (prayer to the gods), is recited with the sacrifice. The custom withholding maidens from weaving before marriage, which was formerly observed, is also explained by the fear of overdoing weaving. Little or no attention, however, is paid to this tradition today. Pgs. 221, 223
For references to steps in weaving, coloring and dyeing of wool, setting up of loom, weaving, Implements, use of loom, designs and knitting refer to below Pgs. 223-256
Take, for instance, the famous art of Navajo weaving. If you ask a member of the tribe today when weaving was learned, she - for Navajo weavers are women - will tell you that they were taught by Spider Woman, "in the beginning." Yet the Navajo weaving technique, point for point, exactly duplicates that of the Pueblos, who have been weaving since A.D. 600. It is a complicated art, and Navajo girls today need years to learn it from a female relative, practicing every day. It is difficult to believe that the Navajos had worked out the loom, the spindle, and all the other equipment before this era of "learning by marriage." A blanket got in trade, a loom glimpsed on a visit to some pueblo would never have given them enough information. Then there is the problem of sex etiquette, for most Pueblo weavers today are men. Indian proprieties would surely forbid a Navajo woman to receive daily instruction from a strange man. But if she married him! It is possible to imagine the skilled weaver working in a Navajo home, trying to teach his sons who were still wedded to the life of hunting and fighting and, finally, imparting the art to his daughters. That this did not happen too early in Navajo history can be gathered from the fact that all known specimens of Navajo weaving are in wool. Therefore they were made after the Spaniards had come and after the Navajos had sheep. And sheep did not come to the Navajos in any quantity until after the Pueblo revolt. Pgs. 46-47
Even such everyday tasks as weaving must be done only in moderation. Many women will not weave more than about two hours at a stretch; in the old days unmarried girls were not allowed to weave for fear they would overdo, and there is a folk rite for curing the results of excess in this activity. Closely related is the fear of completely finishing anything: as a "spirit outlet," the weaver leaves a small slit between the threads. Pgs. 225-226
The Navajos believe in the Greek maxim "Nothing to excess " believing that overdoing a thing brings bad luck as an offense to the spirits. For the same reason nothing must be too perfect. A rug or basket design with a solid border must have a break in it or flaw to let the spirit of the maker, who has spent so much time and energy, escape. It is natural that things which bring one a livelihood should also have some restrictions. Many commercially minded weavers and other craftsmen have begun to ignore the taboos of their trades as being too restrictive. The large number of taboos relating to pottery making have been given credit for the decline of that craft, and none are listed here.
Don 't hit anyone with weaving tools - crack the tools.
They will be paralyzed in the future.
Don't spank your children with weaving tools.
They'll get sick.
Don't have a weaving comb with six points.
Your baby might have six fingers.
Don't go between the poles of the loom when a woman is weaving.
You won't grow - cause evil - won't get much for the rug.
Don't have the loom of the weaving stand too long.
It will tire and hurt you.
Don't eat or drink while you prepare the loom for the rug.
You'll get poor - won't get much for the rug.
Don't eat while you are weaving.
It will go slow - won't be any good.
Don't weave a Yei figure with one eye smaller or one leg shorter.
It will affect you that way in later life - affect your baby.
Don't leave a Yei figure in a rug unfinished.
The Yeis will get angry - bring bad luck.
This is interesting as a compromise taboo. Yeis are Holy People and as such are supposed to be represented only in the sandpaintings which are used and destroyed before sundown but never done in any permanent form. The famous hermaphroditic medicine man Hosteen Clah was one of the first to weave rug versions of the sandpaintings. In the Shiprock area Yei rugs and other pictorial tapestries became increasingly popular after WWII.
Don't be stubborn while weaving a rug.
It won't be worth much.
Don't throw weaving tools.
You 'II never finish the weaving.
Don't burn weaving tools.
The "Yeis" will get angry - bad luck.
Don't weave if you don't know a weaving song.
It won't be any good.
Don't leave tools in the loom when they are not in use.
You won't finish right away.
Don't weave when it is raining.
It will cause the loom to fall.
Don't stand by the loom when it is raining.
Lightning will strike you.
Don't pass things through the loom.
Anything you pass through will be lost -food, yarn, beads.
Don't bump into or move around a loom you are preparing for a rug.
It will be crooked - you won't be able to get it straight.
Don't leave carded wool too long.
When you start weaving it won't like it and you'll have trouble.
Don't make fun of your weaving.
It will get worse - you'll be poor.
Don't leave a loom outside.
It will collect bad things.
Don't cut off a loom once it is made.
You will have a short life.
Don't steal a rug - wool - weaving tools.
You'll never be lucky - always have bad luck.
Don't weave immoral things in a rug.
You'll be sterile.
Don't weave any taboo animal into a rug.
You will have all the bad luck associated with that animal.
Don 't hang rugs out in the sun.
The sun will take it as an insult.
Don't weave at all (boys).
It will affect the reproductive organs.
Don't weave on the north side of the hogan.
The rug won't be worth anything.
Don't drag your rugs on the ground.
Causes poverty.
Don't leave an unfinished rug outside at night.
It might be witched - you won't be able to finish it or sell it.
Don't put a rug over your horse's face.
It will go blind.
Pgs. 179-183
The principal occupation of the present-day Navajo is raising sheep, goats, and a few cattle. And yet four hundred years ago he had seen no sheep or horses. Under the treaty of 1886, each Navajo was given two sheep - about twelve thousand sheep altogether, since not more than sic thousand Navajos survived Bosque Redondo. Now a million sheep graze on the Navajo land. Since the introduction of sheep to this country by Coronado's men, Navajo women have been weaving rugs on crude hand looms - an art which was not entirely new to them, since they already wove with yucca and other vegetable fibers. Pg. 167
There is a saying that a rug is not good unless a weaver puts her "soul" in it. Like Changing Woman, the Holy Person whom the Navajo woman personifies, the weaver is an eternal creator who weaves both an individual product of her own mind and a more universal product from the mind of the tribe. Pgs. 10-11
